The Scientific Era of Egyptology (1900–1950)

Egyptology underwent a profound transformation during the first half of the 20th century, particularly as foreigners set foot on Egyptian soil. During this period, known as the Scientific Era (1900–1950), the discipline shifted from treasure hunting to a rigorous methodology based on documentation, photography, dating, and the mapping of Egypt—all with the aim of discovering ancient civilizations and their "secrets."

I- The 19th-Century Foundations (1840–1880)

The foundations of this rigorous approach date back to the 19th century with the Prussian Expedition to Egypt and Nubia (1842–1845), led by Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884). A professor and co-director of the Egyptian Museum in Berlin, Lepsius documented monuments using plans, maps, drawings, and photographs. His collection of inscriptions, Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, remains a vital source for studying monuments that are now lost or destroyed. A large portion of his work and artifacts is preserved in Berlin.

In 1858, French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette (1821–1881) founded the Egyptian Antiquities Service (now the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities) to protect national heritage. He also established the modern Egyptian Museum in 1863 (originally housed in Boulaq before being transferred to Tahrir Square in 1902).

a- Who contributed in the explorations? 

The internationalization of excavations and the refinement of methods accelerated thanks to several key figures:

• W. M. Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) United Kingdom Creator of seriation (relative dating based on pottery styles).
• George Andrew Reisner (1867–1942) United States Director of the Harvard–MFA Expedition; pioneer in photography and mapping.
• Adolf Erman Germany Mentor to Reisner, having taught him the Egyptian language.
• Phoebe Apperson Hearst United States Patron who funded Reisner's Egyptian expedition projects.
• James Henry Breasted (1865–1935) United States Founder of the Oriental Institute in Chicago; focused on recording and saving inscriptions.
• Ludwig Borchardt (1874–1944) Germany / Switzerland Discoverer of the bust of Nefertiti; director of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo.
• Ernesto Schiaparelli (1856–1928) Italy Discoverer of the intact tomb of Kha and his wife (TT8) at Deir el-Medina.
• Hermann Junker (1877–1962) Germany / Austria Director of excavations for the German-Austrian concession at Giza (1911–1929).
• Georg Steindorff (1861–1951) Germany Professor at Leipzig, excavator at Giza and in Nubia.
• Selim Hassan (1886–1961) Egypt Professor at Cairo University, responsible for excavations of the Sphinx and the Central Field at Giza.

b- George Andrew Reisner: From PhD to the Conquest of Giza

A native of Indiana (a Hoosier), George Andrew Reisner first studied Semitic languages at Harvard, earning his BA and then his PhD in 1893 before getting married. Trained in the Egyptian language by Adolf Erman and financially supported by Phoebe Apperson Hearst, he became an archaeologist and perfected site mapping. 

• Excavations at Giza: During the division of concessions in 1903, his team settled in 1904 at the far western edge of the Giza Plateau, gradually moving toward the Great Pyramids over the years.
• Photographic Archiving: Starting in 1900, he used glass plate negatives. His work generated over 45,000 archival photographs (including 25,000 focused specifically on Giza).
• Modern Digital Preservation: In 2000, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation made these photo archives accessible. However, due to the chemicals used at the time, the quality of the original prints is gradually degrading.

II- Funerary Structures and Iconic Discoveries

The scientific analysis of royal and non-royal cemeteries brought major architectural and artistic elements to light:

The Mastaba: A rectangular tomb with a flat roof and sloping sides (from the Arabic word meaning "bench"). It originated from beliefs in the afterlife to protect the body and grave goods from scavengers.

Khafre's Valley Temple: A red granite structure located at the end of Khafre's causeway, decorated with life-sized royal statues.

Slab Stelae: Rectangular painted funerary slabs dating to the reign of Khufu, depicting the deceased seated before a table of offerings with their name, titles, and offering lists.

Reserve Heads: Mysterious, anonymous sculptures found in tombs at Giza. They broke with traditional Egyptian artistic conventions by featuring individualized, recognizable traits.

Historical Note on the Geopolitical Context:

While field expeditions were initially shared among nations (French, German, Italian, Austrian, American), World War II marked a turning point: German teams lost permission to conduct explorations on Egyptian soil.

Also, they used to trade mummy across the world and use them as "souvenirs" or turn them into paint. Literally paint so yeah..