yap about impact of colonisation on Aztec/Nahua Day of the Dead traditions

The introduction of Catholicism to ancient Mexico following Spanish colonisation had a significant impact on indigenous Day of the Dead traditions. This influence is particularly evident in urban areas, where the Catholic Church held more power. In contrast, due to the weaker influence of churches in rural Mexico, rural areas have maintained more indigenous aspects of Aztec and Nahua Day of the Dead traditions. Originally a festival that celebrated the dead and the continuity of life after death, the Day of the Dead (DotD) predates the Spanish conquest in 1521 by thousands of years, although it is unclear exactly how long due to the eradication of indigenous cultures. Pre-Hispanic traditions rooted in Aztec and Nahua traditions form the base of most aspects of the DotD, including rituals, offerings and beliefs. Pre-Hispanic beliefs and traditions were changed to fit Catholicism as indigenous people preserved their polytheist beliefs and traditions under the guise of Catholicism. This resulted in the hybridised celebrations which merged the indigenous Months of the Dead and Catholic All Souls’ Day and All Saints’ Day. This syncretism of Aztec religion and Catholicism is apparent in modern DotD traditions, with aspects such as the date (November 1st and 2nd) coinciding with Catholic holidays, and aspects such as the vibrant celebrations coinciding with the Aztec perceptions of death. It is also apparent, due to the modern commercialisation of the DotD, that celebrations in urban areas have further deviated from traditional DotD celebrations, focusing on community and national identity, eventually becoming a largely secular celebration in urban areas, while retaining religious significance in rural areas and indigenous communities, who focused on families and loved ones.

The preservation of indigenous traditions and symbols, as well as Catholic influences are apparent through the hybridised celebrations of the Day of the Dead. The indigenous DotD was originally held during the ninth and tenth months of the Aztec calendar, with the first month, Miccailhuitontli, or ‘the Little Feast of the Dead’, celebrating innocent dead children, and the second month, Miccailhuitl, or ‘the Great Feast of the Dead’, celebrating adults. After the introduction of Catholicism, the dates were changed to coincide with the Catholic holidays of All Souls’ Day and All Saints’ Day, held on November 1st and 2nd, respectively. This date change, while functioning as cultural genocide, also allowed for indigenous peoples to hide and preserve their traditions under a Catholic guise. This was apparent to some Spanish friars who studied the indigenous peoples of Mexico, “the pagan festival has been passed to the Feast of Allhallows [All Souls’ Day] in order to cover up the ancient ceremony.” This syncretism between Catholicism and Aztec and Nahua religions allowed for indigenous aspects of the DotD to be preserved. Despite the clear survival of pre-Hispanic symbols and traditions, many well known symbols of the DotD originate from Spain, as they were imported post-conquest. For example, candles, which are commonly placed on traditional altars were Spanish imports, and have now become integral to the offerings given to ancestors. Candles are thought to guide souls back to the living plane through the nights of the DotD, and candlelight vigils are held to support this. The influence of Catholicism on the DotD is apparent through the candlelight vigils, which are sombre in tone, reflecting Catholic views towards death and contrasting against other vibrant practices of the DotD. The Spanish origins of DotD symbols are further seen through the importation of sugar, which resulted in the iconic symbols of sugar skulls and sugar animals. Similar to candles, sugar skulls are commonly placed on altars as offerings to the deceased, but are viewed as “alms for the poor on days of remembrance,” which aimed to offer salvation to souls in purgatory, who were considered the poorest of the poor, as they were unable to affect their situation. The idea of purgatory also has significant Spanish influence, as it originates in Catholicism. Through these, it is apparent that the DotD’s “roots lie in pre-Hispanic practices” and have been “enriched by Spanish, Catholic influences.” Indigenous symbols have also been reappropriated as a nationalist statement in order to reclaim indigenous cultures. For example, in Aztec society, bones were regarded as sacred, and were believed to provide prosperity and fertility to the living. In modern DotD traditions, the skull symbol has become the most prominent symbol associated with it. Commonly known as calaveras, the skull symbol originated in the 20th century when the cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada incorporated skeletal figures in his art, mocking politicians and commenting on revolutionary politics. His most well known work La Calavera Catrina features a female skeleton dressed in European clothes, which made a statement about Mexicans adopting European fashions over their own traditions, highlighting Mexican pride and cultural identity and reintroducing bones as a symbol in the DotD. However, this also connected to the commercialisation of the DotD, which had a more significant impact in urban areas, where festivals revolve around parades and interaction with the community. Thus, the preservation of indigenous symbols and traditions under the guise of Catholicism, as well as the reintroduction of popular indigenous symbols has resulted in a hybrid festival between Aztec and Nahua religions and Catholicism.

The beliefs underlying the Day of the Dead hold both Catholic and indigenous origins; however, due to the cultural genocide of indigenous religions, some pre-Hispanic beliefs have disappeared, creating syncretic beliefs. The Aztec and Nahua people held a polytheistic belief system centred around the idea of teotl, which was a transformative power thought to be the life flow of all creation. Teotl was a divine force that created everything in the cosmos, thus, to the Aztecs, everything was sacred. This monist belief also centred on change as a defining characteristic of existence and reality, and contributed to their perception of dual aspects “Aztec binaries appear to be two aspects of a single thing,” thus creating the beliefs around death as the continuation of life, or another aspect of life. To the Aztecs, everything was interconnected, and this holistic approach to life made, “Christian transcendentalism …meaningless,” as dualistic and hierarchical Catholic beliefs directly contradicted their own. After the Spanish conquest of Mexico, the beliefs around teotl have all but disappeared, instead being replaced by Catholic beliefs. However, due to similar aspects of the beliefs around the Months of the Dead and All Souls’ and All Saints’ Day, some aspects of the Aztec perception of death remain. For example, in pre-colonial Mexico, it was believed that in the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, that children would return to their families and loved ones to remember their life and celebrate their existence. The same happened in the tenth month of the Aztec calendar for adults. This vibrant celebration of life contrasts against Catholic beliefs of mortality and the vanity of existence, however it was similarly believed that souls of the deceased would return on All Souls’ and All Saints’ Day. There were some differences, as the souls who returned during All Souls’ and All Saints’ Day were believed to be souls who were in purgatory, and thus needed prayers for their salvation. However, these similar beliefs allowed Aztec and Nahua people to disguise their own celebrations under the Catholic holidays, preserving their view of death as humorous and satirical, and their belief in the afterlife as a desirable continuation of their mortal lives. Thus, in modern times, the “Day of the Dead [remained] a holiday to remember loved ones by [celebrating] with them as one would when they were alive,” rather than a way to mourn their mortal existence. Some Catholic beliefs were also introduced into the DotD after the cultural genocide of the polytheist beliefs of the Aztecs. This is apparent through the introduction of Catholic iconography such as crucifixes, rosary beads and images of figures such as Jesus and the Virgin Mary, as well as Catholic ceremonies such as vigils and mass. Furthermore, some traditions, such as the altars, were changed to coincide with Catholic beliefs, where the top level, representing heaven, was decorated with symbols of faith, and the bottom level, representing death, was decorated with skulls to, “remind us of the shortness of life.” The middle level, representing the deceased’s life on Earth, holds traces of both Catholic and Aztec beliefs, as both religions celebrated, or mourned the deceased with food, drink, and mementos. However, the beliefs underlying this aspect of the altars are indigenous, as they aim to celebrate the deceased, rather than to mourn them. Thus, the disappearance of beliefs in teotl due to the cultural genocide of indigenous religions has resulted in a syncretic belief of indigenous perspectives of death and Catholic perspectives of mortality.

In rural areas, where the Catholic Church had less influence, indigenous peoples managed to preserve many Day of the Dead traditions, contrasting against the more syncretic and commercialised celebrations found in urban areas. In rural areas, where the Catholic Church had less influence, indigenous peoples managed to preserve many indigenous DotD traditions. This is apparent through the greater focus on close family and loved ones in rural areas, where celebrations will often consist of ritual altars and cleaning of graves, and will usually remain within indigenous communities and loved ones. For example, modern Nahua people will make preparations for the DotD a month before, creating altars and, “maintain[ing] … the heritage of [their] ancestors.” Similarly, the Totonac people create altars which symbolise the four universes which the deceased go to. These represent a small Earth by incorporating flowers, which represent vegetation, water, which represents the ocean, tepejilote leaves which represent the sky, and coyol palm leaves, which represent celestial bodies. Furthermore, many indigenous communities will create altars with pre-Hispanic foods and symbols, such as maize, grain beverages, marigolds, and copal incense, as well as currencies such as salt, cacao, and shells. However, the significant impact of Catholicism and Spanish colonisation are also apparent in rural and indigenous communities, as these traditional celebrations are often combined with Catholic elements, including ceremonies such as vigils, and iconography such as images of religious figures. Contrastingly, in urban areas, festivities focus on larger communities and consist of vigils, feasts and parades. This greater deviation between indigenous traditions and modern celebrations in urban areas is due to the greater influence of the Catholic Church. This is apparent as the majority of Mexicans (around 80%) identify as Catholic. However, around 50% of Mexican Catholics also reported a medium to high level of engagement with indigenous beliefs and practices, signifying the syncretism between the religions despite the significant influence of Catholicism. This deviation is also due to the commercialisation of the holiday. Due to the colonial commercialisation of the DotD, the holiday has evolved into a secular celebration with indigenous and Catholic influences. The commercialisation of the DotD began in colonial Mexico as it became a more popular festival, generating the largest annual market in Mexico City. However, it is important to note that both the Months of the Dead, and All Souls’ and All Saints’ Day significantly contributed to the economy, due to the elaborate celebrations and offerings of the Months of the Dead, and the Catholic involvement with All Souls’ and All Saints’ Day, where the Church sold candles and other offerings as salvation for those in purgatory. The commercialisation of the holiday resulted in the vending of items related to celebrations such as food, candy, candles and religious items, and eventually, unrelated items such as clothes, tools and furniture. This influx of the monetary value of the holiday also provided an opportunity for entertainers and vendors to earn money in the streets, further increasing the holiday’s popularity. This eventually led to the introduction of the Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City, "As a result of the James Bond film [Spectre]”. These parades are vibrant, reflecting indigenous perspectives of death, but are largely secular in nature, incorporating post-colonial imagery including Catrina, from La Calavera Catrina. Thus due to the commercialisation of the DotD in colonial Mexico, the holiday became increasingly secular, eventually becoming a part of the Mexican national identity. In summary, while rural areas have managed to preserve many indigenous Day of the Dead traditions, urban celebrations have evolved into a more syncretic and commercialised version of the holiday, both reflecting the significant impact of Catholicism on the Day of the Dead, while revealing the locational differences in both colonial and post-colonial times.

Initially, pre-Hispanic rituals and beliefs were adapted to fit Catholic practices, resulting in hybrid celebrations. The introduction of Catholic elements, such as candles and sugar skulls, alongside the preservation of indigenous symbols such as altars, created a syncretic holiday, reflecting how indigenous peoples changed their practices to preserve their beliefs of the afterlife. In rural areas, less influenced by the Church, many indigenous traditions have been maintained, focusing on family and traditional rituals. In contrast, urban areas have seen a greater syncretism and commercialisation of the holiday, emphasising community and national identity. Thus, Spanish colonisation and Catholicism significantly impacted Day of the Dead traditions, creating a syncretic holiday.

I did this essay over a year ago and there were very few primary Aztec sources regarding the Day of the Dead (since they were destroyed by Spanish conquistadors) so it's important to note the Spanish colonial bias. Feel free to correct anything wrong! 

Bibliography 

Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs. “Mexican Catholicism: Conquest, Faith, and Resistance,” n.d. https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/mexican-catholicism-conquest-faith-and-resistance.

Brandes, Stanley. “Iconography in Mexico’s Day of the Dead: Origins and Meaning.” Ethnohistory 45, no. 2 (January 1, 1998): 181. https://doi.org/10.2307/483058.

Brandes, Stanley. “Sugar, Colonialism, and Death: On the Origins of Mexico’s Day of the Dead on JSTOR.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 39, no. 2 (April 1997): 270–99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/179316.

Burkhart, Lousie M. “The Amanuenses Have Appropriated the Text: Interpreting a Nahuatl Song of Santiago.” Edited by Brian Swann. On The Translation of Native American Literatures, 1992, 345. http://balsas-nahuatl.org/nahuatl-electronic-docs/Burkhart_Amenuenses_have_spoken.pdf.

Cordova, Ruben C. “A Brief History of Day of the Dead.” San Antonio Report, October 12, 2022. https://sanantonioreport.org/a-brief-history-of-day-of-the-dead/.

Cordova, Ruben C. “Is Day of the Dead More Indigenous or Catholic? Friars Durán and Sahagún Vs. Wikipedia.” Glasstire, October 31, 2019. Accessed July 1, 2024. https://glasstire.com/2019/10/31/is-day-of-the-dead-more-indigenous-or-catholic-friars-duran-and-sahagun-vs-wikipedia/.

Cordova, Ruben C. “José Guadalupe Posada and Diego Rivera Fashion Catrina: From Sellout To National Icon (and Back Again?).” Glasstire, November 2, 2019. https://glasstire.com/2019/11/02/jose-guadalupe-posada-and-diego-rivera-fashion-catrina-from-sellout-to-national-icon-and-back-again/.

Cordova, Ruben C. “The Day of the Dead in Art.” Exhibition. City of San Antonio Department of Arts & Culture. City of San Antonio Department of Arts & Culture, October 24, 2019. https://www.getcreativesanantonio.com/Portals/3/Files/DOD_CATALGOGUE_digital.pdf.

“Day of the Dead | Encyclopedia.com,” n.d. https://www.encyclopedia.com/sports-and-everyday-life/days-and-holidays/days-months-holidays-and-festivals/day-dead.

Day of the Dead. “Day of the Dead (Dia De Los Muertos),” n.d. https://dayofthedead.holiday/.

De Innovación Pública, Agencia Digital. “Day of the Dead Guide | Mexico City.” Mexico City, n.d. https://mexicocity.cdmx.gob.mx/tag/muertos/.

Durán, Diego. Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar. Book. Edited by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden. Translated by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA21648130.

Farah, Kirby. “Day of the Dead: From Aztec Goddess Worship to Modern Mexican Celebration.” The Conversation, October 28, 2019. https://theconversation.com/day-of-the-dead-from-aztec-goddess-worship-to-modern-mexican-celebration-124962.

Catholic Extension Society. “Feast of All Souls & Day of the Dead - Catholic Extension Society,” October 28, 2021. https://www.catholicextension.org/feast-of-all-souls-day-of-the-dead/.

Garciagodoy, Juanita. Digging the Days of the Dead: A Reading of Mexico’s Días de Muertos. Book. Colorado, United States of America: University Press of Colorado, 1998.

González, Agustín Sánchez. “Día De Muertos, ¿Tradición Prehispánica O Invención Del Siglo XX?” Relatos E Historias En México, November 6, 2022. https://relatosehistorias.mx/nuestras-historias/dia-de-muertos-tradicion-prehispanica-o-invencion-del-siglo-xx.

Lomnitz, Claudio. Death and the Idea of Mexico. Book. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2008.

Maffie, James. Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion. Book. Www.Jstor.Org. Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhkh2.

Marchi, Regina. “Hybridity and Authenticity in US Day of the Dead Celebrations.” The Journal of American Folklore 126, no. 501 (July 1, 2013): 272–301. https://doi.org/10.5406/jamerfolk.126.501.0272.

McKenna, Alexandria. “The Native Roots of Dia De Los Muertos.” Tuscon, Arizona, November 1, 2019. https://www.pimapost.com/2019/11/the-native-roots-of-dia-de-los-muertos/.

Onion, Amanda. “Day of the Dead (Día De Los Muertos) - Origins, Celebrations, Parade.” HISTORY, April 24, 2023. https://www.history.com/topics/halloween/day-of-the-dead.

“Religion in Latin America: Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region.” Survey. Survey Topline Results, n.d. https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/11/Religion-in-Latin-America-Survey-Topline-Questionnaire.pdf.

Sandoval, Mathew. “How Commercialization Over the Centuries Transformed the Day of the Dead.” The Conversation, October 27, 2021. https://theconversation.com/how-commercialization-over-the-centuries-transformed-the-day-of-the-dead-170428.

Scott, Chris. “Day of the Dead Parade – Life Imitates Art.” CNN, October 28, 2016. https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/mexico-city-day-of-the-day-parade/index.html.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “All Souls’ Day | Description, History, & Traditions.” Encyclopedia Britannica, July 20, 1998. https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Souls-Day-Christianity.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Day of the Dead | Mexican Tradition, Celebrations & Rituals.” Encyclopedia Britannica, May 28, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Day-of-the-Dead.

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Contributors. “Indigenous Festivity Dedicated to the Dead,” n.d. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indigenous-festivity-dedicated-to-the-dead-00054.

Van De Kerkhof, Maup. “The Origin of Day of the Dead: Aztec Mythology and More! | History Cooperative.” History Cooperative, November 30, 2023. https://historycooperative.org/origin-of-day-of-the-dead/.