Roman "Demagogues" and the Failure of Roman Institutions

Previous Entry: https://blog.spacehey.com/entry?id=900227

Tiberius Gracchus had died in 133 BC, but his actions kicked off a wave of populist politics in the Republic. The Senate had not addressed the core issues that Tiberius Gracchus shed light on; the urban poor were still increasing. This allowed other reformers to attempt to fill the Gracchan shoe.

First to step into the legacy of Tiberius Gracchus was Gaius Gracchus, his brother, 10 years after the death of Tiberius. Gaius campaigned for the tribunate in the same style Tiberius had done. Taking the office in 123 BC, Gaius proposes three laws through the popular assemblies.

His first substantial act was to implement a grain ration for the urban poor. The state would buy grain when the price was low and store it granaries for later purchase, but the price was not substantially lower than fresh wheat. Grain rations would continue to be a defining part of the populist agenda for the next 70 years.

Second, Gaius wanted to continue the resettlement of the poor that Tiberius had started. Gaius selected the former site of the now-destroyed Carthage for a colony, naming it Junonia. Unfortunately for him, a bad omen prevented Junonia from getting off the ground.

Third, Gaius noticed a problem that Tiberius did not. Gaius saw that the Socii (lit. allies), or allied-subjugated Latins and Italians had also been affected by the land grabbing of the elite. Furthermore, they had participated in all of the Roman campaigns but shared none of the booty and glory. Resentment from the Socii built up. As a release valve, Gaius proposed giving citizenship to the Latins and Italians, which was highly controversial.

The poor Roman citizens could unite behind Gaius' reform program for policies that would benefit themselves, but they would not accept policies that would benefit non-Romans. In their mind, if the Socii were granted citizenship, they would also be eligible for the grain ration and lottery for colonies, and thus reduce the chance of receiving their own benefits. A fellow tribune vetoed the proposal for citizenship.

Gaius Gracchus was elected twice for 123 and 122, but failed to win for 121, making him a private citizen again. His legislative achievements were immediately under attack that year. During a religious ceremony, somebody jeered at Gracchus, and either he or one of his followers killed the offender, causing a large commotion.

Due to the outbreak of violence, the consul Lucius Opimius called for a meeting of the Senate. The Senate passed the senatus consultum ultimum (lit. final decree of the Senate), which was an emergency decree that gave the magistrates the moral authority to ignore laws for the purpose of protecting the Republic. The message was clear - Gracchus was to be killed. Although he and his followers attempted to fortify a temple, they were all killed by consul's forces.

Both Gracchi brothers had now both been killed in the interest of the Senate. For the next 30 years, some minor reformers would come and go, but none would have the impact of the Gracchi until Marcus Livius Drusus in 91 BC.

Drusus wanted to implement a Gracchan strategy. He was uniquely strong as a torch bearer of populist policies due to his personal heritage and connections, which made him amicable to the elite class as well. His first proposal was actually in the interest of the senatorial class: Drusus passed a law that reformed the court juries. Gaius Gracchus had actually removed the senatorial class' ability to participate in juries, instead replacing them with the equestrian class, who existed between the senators and the poor. An unintended consequence of Gracchus' law was that the equestrians, who controlled the courts, would pressure senatorial governors to exploit provinces and share the loot with them. Drusus reformed the court by implementing mixed senatorial-equestrian juries, creating competing class interests in them in hopes for a more just outcome. The same bill made the equestrians liable to be prosecuted for bribery.

In the Gracchan tradition, Drusus created a new land commission to redistribute land to the poor. He created many colonies, but also included Latins and Italians into the colony system. Drusus went a step further and proposed citizenship rights for the Socii. Much like with Gaius Gracchus, this alienated Drusus from his voting base. However, this made him immensely popular with the Socii, many of whom resided in the city of Rome itself.

On the day of the voting for this citizenship bill, the consul Philippus and the praetor Caepio attempted to protest the bill, disrupting the proceedings. Philippius was beaten and put into mortal danger by the crowd due to his obstructions, and Caepio was threatened by Drusus to be thrown off the Tarpeian Rock, an execution method reserved for traitors. The violence and unrest caused an erosion of Drusus' support in the Senate.

The consuls continued to resist the movement to give rights to the Socii. In response, the Socii grew more desperate and plotted to assassinate both of the consuls. When Drusus heard of this conspiracy, he took a principled stance and informed the consul Philippus. Philippus used the moment to denounce Drusus and abolish all of his legislation. Not long after, Drusus was assassinated in the forum by an unknown assailant.

With their champion killed, the Socii quickly rose up in rebellion, sparking the disastrous Social War, a bloody civil war between military equals.

The period of 133-91 BC has traditionally been labelled as an era full of demagogues. The Gracchi and Drusus (and Saturninus, who I have not mentioned) were written of as only riling up the population for their own personal gain. However, this may only be true for someone like Saturninus. The Gracchi and Drusus had illustrious pedigrees that allowed them to fit in with the rest of Roman elite society; they could have gone through a more traditional path to power that their peers did. However, because they recognized problems that the Senate were not willing to confront, they were forced to turn to the people as an alternative source of power to make changes that would ultimately benefit the Republic, not themselves.